leaf

Guide to Writing a Handwritten Will

I. Introduction and Declaration#

This "Guide to Writing a Handwritten Will" is drafted in accordance with the provisions of the Civil Code of the People's Republic of China and relevant judicial interpretations. Handwritten wills have many advantages, such as autonomy, privacy, convenience, and genuine expression of intent, and they are the only major form of will specified in the Civil Code that does not require the presence of other witnesses. Testators can write their wills anytime and anywhere without worrying about witnesses knowing or leaking the contents of the will, allowing them to express their various wishes more authentically. However, the authenticity of handwritten wills is often questioned, leading to numerous disputes among heirs, family discord, and even litigation.

To address the significant issue of proving the authenticity of handwritten wills, the United Trust has innovatively launched the "Will Guardian" product (website: https://will.tsa.cn) after extensive research. This product can objectively prove the authenticity of the will-writing process, the time of writing, and the content of the will, achieving the function of objectively witnessing the entire process of writing a handwritten will. By using the "Will Guardian," testators can fill in the relevant content according to the template's guidance, generate a draft will, and after confirming that the will's content is correct, further complete the will-writing process according to the guidance of the "Will Guardian." Testators may also seek professional lawyers or other legal professionals to review and improve the draft will before finalizing it. To make the process of writing a handwritten will more standardized and effectively reduce disputes during the execution of the will regarding the authenticity of the signature, potential alterations to the will's content, and the certainty of the will's writing time, the United Trust has compiled this "Guide" addressing common issues in the process of writing handwritten wills, for the reference of testators and related parties.

【Special Declaration】 The United Trust only provides advice on the process of writing handwritten wills and does not constitute any commitment or guarantee. It does not assume any legal responsibility for the writing, validity, or execution of handwritten wills, and the decision to reference or adopt this advice is solely at the discretion of the testator.

II. Requirements for Writing a Handwritten Will#

According to Article 1134 of the Civil Code of the People's Republic of China, a handwritten will must be written in the testator's own handwriting, signed, and dated. Therefore, when writing a handwritten will, testators should pay attention to the following points:

1. The entire text of the handwritten will must be written by the testator personally. The testator should use a pen to write the will's content (including the main text and signature) completely on paper; it cannot be written by others or partially written by others. When writing, it is advisable to use pens that are easy to preserve long-term and not easily altered, such as fountain pens, ballpoint pens, or brushes, and to avoid using pens that are difficult to preserve or easy to alter, such as ballpoint pens, pencils, or crayons.
2. Signature at the end. The testator's name should match the name on their ID card, passport, or other legal documents. They should not sign using a stage name, pen name, nickname, or former name. The signature can be in regular script or cursive, but it should be consistent with the signature writing habits on other legal documents to facilitate handwriting identification in case of disputes.
3. Date at the end. The signing date must include "year, month, day" and should not only write the year and month or month and day. The date can be expressed using Arabic numerals or Chinese characters, but it should use the Gregorian calendar rather than the lunar calendar, with the year expressed as a four-digit number and the month and day expressed as two-digit numbers, for example: August 15, 2024.
4. Accurately write the names of the heirs in the handwritten will. The names of the heirs in the handwritten will should match the names on their ID cards, passports, or other legal documents. Do not use stage names, pen names, nicknames, former names, or family order names.
5. Requirements for writing the handwritten will. The writing of the entire will should be as standardized and neat as possible, without alterations. If a mistake is found during writing, it cannot be altered; the page must be torn out and rewritten.
6. A handwritten will does not require witnesses, nor does it require acknowledgment from heirs or other close relatives; thus, the entire will only needs to be written and signed by the testator.
7. It is recommended that the testator sign and date at the bottom of each page of the will and keep it consistent with the signature habits and signing dates at the end of the entire will.

III. Video Recording Requirements for the Handwritten Will Process#

1. To prove the authenticity of the will-writing process and avoid disputes among heirs, it is strongly recommended that testators use the "Will Guardian" (website: https://will.tsa.cn) to complete the writing of their handwritten wills. It is not advisable to use cameras or mobile phones for direct recording, as videos produced in these ways can be easily edited or altered, and their originality and authenticity may be easily questioned.

2. When writing the will, the testator should enter the "Will Guardian" mini-program's "Writing" function to continuously and uninterruptedly record the process of writing the will, signing, and reading the will. During the recording, avoid actions that may interrupt the recording, such as answering calls, switching applications, closing the "Will Guardian" mini-program, or locking the phone. If any situation causes the recording to be interrupted, it needs to be re-recorded. It is advisable to prepare the draft will before formally writing it and to copy it during the writing process. The recording of the will-writing process mainly includes:
   (1) Holding the phone to capture the surrounding environment while writing the will, circling around the room to ensure no heirs or close relatives of the heirs are present. If others are present, the identity of those present and their relationship with the testator should be explained, and their appearance characteristics should be clearly displayed in the footage;
   (2) Fixing the phone for recording, adjusting the angle to clearly capture the entire process of writing the will and signing. After writing is completed, the testator should hold the will in front of the camera to clearly display the entire content of the will and the signature. If there are modifications during the writing process, the modified page can be torn out and rewritten without needing to re-record; it is advisable to prepare the draft will before formally writing it and to copy it during the writing process.
   (3) The testator should read the contents of the will facing the camera, ensuring a loud voice and clear enunciation while minimizing surrounding noise, and the testator should remain in the recorded footage throughout. The suggested reading content is as follows:

   "Today is [year] [month] [day]. I, [name], currently reside at [address] (actual location of will writing). Today I am of sound mind and free action. I am writing a handwritten will (show the handwritten will), and I will read the contents... The above content reflects my true thoughts. I understand and am willing to abide by the legal consequences of writing this will, and I record this video as evidence."
   (4) After filming the will-writing process, use the "Will Guardian" mini-program's photo function to take pictures of the written will, ensuring that each page of the will is clearly photographed.

3. After completing the will using the "Will Guardian," check the details in the "Will Management" section of the "Will Guardian" mini-program and perform the following operations:
   (1) Click to mail the physical will certificate, fill in the mailing address, recipient, and contact number, and the "Will Guardian" will mail you the physical "Will Certificate."
   (2) Download the will materials and download the certificate; you will receive encrypted electronic evidence of the will-writing process and the corresponding "Trusted Timestamp Certification."
   Please save all the above electronic evidence materials and the corresponding decompression password to a USB drive or burn them to a CD, and keep them properly along with the physical will and the physical "Will Certificate" issued by the "Will Guardian."
   (3) Note: The electronic evidence downloaded from the "Will Guardian" must not be modified in any form; otherwise, its authenticity and integrity cannot be verified.

4. Using the "Will Guardian" to record and photograph the will-writing process is to prove the authenticity of the will-writing process, the time of writing, and the content of the will. The "Will Guardian" will immediately certify this electronic data with a trusted timestamp, generating legally effective electronic evidence that can be directly used to resolve important issues in will disputes, such as alterations to the will's content, handwriting identification issues, signature defects, coercion at the signing site, and uncertainty regarding the time of writing.

IV. Modifications to the Handwritten Will#

After writing a handwritten will, if subjective or objective circumstances change, the testator may write a new will. The new will can revise certain clauses of the existing handwritten will or completely replace it. If only the existing will is being revised, the testator can write a separate document titled "Amendment to the Will dated [date]" stating the changes to a specific clause of the existing will. The original of the amendment should be kept together with the original of the existing will. If a new will is to be written, it is advisable for the testator to destroy the existing will to reduce the possibility of disputes.

Regardless of the method used, the writing requirements and storage rules for the new will must comply with the writing requirements, video recording requirements, and storage requirements outlined in this "Guide." According to Article 1142 of the Civil Code of the People's Republic of China, a testator may revoke or change their will. If the testator engages in civil legal acts contrary to the will's content after establishing the will, it will be regarded as a revocation of the relevant content of the will. In cases where multiple wills exist with conflicting content, only the last will established will have legal binding force. The Civil Code has abolished the priority of notarized wills; even if a previous will was notarized, if the testator establishes another form of will (such as a handwritten will, a written will, a printed will, or a video will) after the implementation of the Civil Code, and these subsequent wills conflict with the content of the previous notarized will, the content of the last established will shall prevail.

V. Storage Requirements for the Original Handwritten Will and Electronic Data Files#

After completing the writing of the handwritten will, it is essential to keep the original securely to prevent its destruction. It is recommended that the testator place the written paper original of the will, the CD or USB drive containing the electronic evidence materials generated by the "Will Guardian," and the issued "Will Certificate" into a file bag and store it in a place where it can be found when sorting out belongings after death, or entrust it to a trusted heir or other close relatives or friends for safekeeping, to prevent the will from not being executed due to lack of knowledge; the testator may also choose to store and execute the will through a lawyer. By using the "Will Guardian" to write the will, the United Trust will securely store the video recordings, photos, and other electronic data files generated during the entire will-writing process. These electronic data files serve as proof of the authenticity of the will-writing process and are not the original will; only the testator or a designated extractor (who must present the testator's death certificate and other materials) can extract them.

VI. Effectiveness of the Handwritten Will#

1. The handwritten will must meet the substantive requirements for handwritten wills as stipulated in the Civil Code and relevant judicial interpretations. (See "VII. Attachments" for details)
2. The will takes effect upon the death of the testator; therefore, the will does not have any legal effect during the testator's lifetime. The testator may revoke or change the content of the will at any time. In cases where multiple wills exist with conflicting content, the last will shall prevail.
3. After the testator's death, the heirs will handle inheritance matters with the will and the deceased's death certificate. Heirs may choose one of the following two methods:
   Method One: Notarized Inheritance. Heirs present the will, the deceased's death certificate, proof of kinship, and relevant property certificates to any notary office in China to obtain a notarized inheritance. During the notarization process, the notary will verify the authenticity of the will and the intentions of other heirs, and issue a notarized document. Heirs will complete the inheritance procedures after presenting the inheritance document to the relevant departments for property transfer.
   Method Two: Litigation Inheritance. Heirs, as plaintiffs, may sue other legal heirs of the deceased as defendants in the court of the deceased's residence or the court of the main estate location, requesting inheritance according to the will. The people's court will issue a judgment document (civil judgment or mediation document) after hearing the case, and heirs will complete the inheritance procedures after presenting the effective judgment document to the relevant departments for property transfer.

VII. Attachments#

1. Provisions related to handwritten wills in the "Civil Code":
   Article 1133: Natural persons may make wills to dispose of personal property according to the provisions of this law and may designate executors.
   Natural persons may make wills to designate one or more statutory heirs to inherit personal property. Natural persons may make wills to donate personal property to the state, collective, or organizations or individuals other than statutory heirs.
   Article 1134: A handwritten will must be written in the testator's own handwriting, signed, and dated.
   Article 1142: A testator may revoke or change their own will. If the testator engages in civil legal acts contrary to the will's content after establishing the will, it will be regarded as a revocation of the relevant content of the will. In cases where multiple wills exist with conflicting content, only the last will shall prevail.
   Article 1141: The will should reserve a necessary share of the estate for heirs who lack labor capacity and have no source of livelihood.
   Article 1143: Wills made by individuals without civil capacity or with restricted civil capacity are invalid. Wills must express the true intention of the testator; those made under fraud or coercion are invalid. Forged wills are invalid. If a will is altered, the altered content is invalid.
2. Provisions related to handwritten wills in the "Interpretation (I) of the Supreme People's Court on the Application of the Inheritance Chapter of the Civil Code" (Legal Interpretation [2024] No. 23):
   Article 3: If the deceased had a legacy support agreement with others and also made a will, after the inheritance begins, if the legacy support agreement does not conflict with the will, the estate will be handled according to the agreement and the will; if there is a conflict, it will be handled according to the agreement, and the conflicting parts of the will will be entirely or partially invalid.
   Article 25: If the testator did not reserve an estate share for heirs who lack labor capacity and have no source of livelihood, necessary property should be left for that heir during estate handling, and only the remaining portion may be handled according to the distribution principles specified in the will.
   Whether an heir lacks labor capacity and has no source of livelihood should be determined based on the specific situation of that heir at the time the will takes effect.
   Article 26: If the testator disposes of state, collective, or other people's property in the will, that part of the will should be deemed invalid.
   Article 27: If the content of the will concerning the disposition of personal property after death is indeed the true intention of the deceased, is signed by the deceased, and is dated, and there is no contrary evidence, it may be treated as a handwritten will.
   Article 28: The testator must have full civil capacity when making a will. Wills made by individuals without civil capacity or with restricted civil capacity are invalid, even if they later attain full civil capacity. If a testator has full civil capacity when making a will but later becomes incapacitated or restricted, it does not affect the will's validity.

Detailed Notes on Legal Will Forms:

1. Handwritten Will [Simple, no witnesses required]
   Fully handwritten, signature must be the handwritten name on the ID card, fingerprints are not acceptable, must include (precise to the day) date, preferably without alterations or additions; it is best to sign at the bottom of each page (to avoid suspicion), and recording while writing can provide more proof.

2. Written Will [Spoken by the testator but written by another]
   Requires the testator's personal signature confirmation, needs two or more witnesses present, and finally requires the testator, the writer, and other witnesses to sign and date, ensuring no leading questions during the writing process.

3. Printed Will [Printed signature]
   Typing and printing by oneself is a handwritten will; if someone else helps print, it is a written will, and two or more witnesses should be present to witness. The testator and witnesses should sign and date each page of the will (handwritten wills do not need to sign each page because context can be verified through the testator's handwriting).

4. Audio-Video Will
   In addition to the testator, there should also be two or more witnesses present and appearing in the audio-video recording, recording their names or images and the date, witnesses must show their faces, and the video will should ensure continuity.

5. Oral Will
   In crisis situations, an oral will can be made, requiring two or more witnesses to be present. If the person making the will can subsequently create a written or audio-video will after the crisis, the oral will is invalid.

6. Notarized Will [Highest validity]
   Witnessed by more professional independent notary personnel, printed, strictly processed according to regulations, has the highest validity but is cumbersome to process. (*Currently, only the last will is valid)

[WeChat mini-program wills have no legal effect, timed email wills also have no legal effect]

[Property wills and letters of wishes are different]

[Witness qualification restrictions—those who cannot serve as witnesses include: ① individuals without civil capacity, those with restricted civil capacity, and others who do not have the capacity to witness (such as children); ② heirs, legatees; ③ those with a vested interest in the heirs or legatees (etc.).]

A standard will should look like this

In this article, I will use a will template that I usually use as a basis to comprehensively introduce the basic elements that a will should have, writing norms, and key points to pay attention to during the writing process.

I.

Let's start with handwritten wills. A handwritten will, as the name suggests, is a will that the testator writes in their own handwriting.

According to legal provisions, the basic elements that a handwritten will should include are as follows:

Testator's identity information

Estate information

Heir's identity information

Date (year, month, day)

Handwritten signature

In other words, as long as these contents are included, the will is basically valid.

Let's first look at the simplest will:

The title states "Will," the testator's name is included, and the ID number is provided. The intention to dispose of the estate is clear, and the designated heir is also mentioned. It should be noted that although there is no specific estate information here, since it is already stated as "all estate," any property that can be proven to belong to the testator is considered within the scope of this will's disposal. Finally, the date and the testator's signature are included.

Although this will looks very simple, it meets all the basic elements and is a valid handwritten will.

Of course, unless there are special circumstances, I personally still recommend being as detailed as possible. This can avoid some proof issues in the subsequent inheritance process.

II.

The elements I personally suggest for a will should ideally include the following:

Testator's name, ID number

Information of the testator's statutory heirs

Specific estate information

Consequences of any changes to the estate in the future

Heir's name, ID number, relationship with the testator

Statement confirming that I am of sound mind and have full civil capacity

Statement confirming that I am not under coercion or deception and voluntarily make this will

Date noted on each page, my signature, and fingerprint

Accompanying a handwriting identification sample

Next, I will explain using a will template that I often use:

The header includes the title and the testator's name.

The first clause includes the testator's identity information, as well as the identity information of each statutory heir, their relationships, and information about deceased elders. If some elders passed away early and do not have death certificates, mentioning them here can facilitate evidence collection for subsequent inheritance notarization.

The second clause details the specific estate information. I have listed common types, and you can add or reduce them according to your needs.

First, definitely include real estate; generally, stating the address and property certificate number is sufficient. For private houses without property certificates, include land certificate information. Furniture and equipment can be included or excluded. The last sentence is recommended. In practice, if the will only states that a certain property is inherited by someone, but it is demolished before death without changing the will, it is considered a change in the estate, and the original will will not take effect. Therefore, this clause must be included.

Next is vehicles; in addition to the vehicle itself, a Shanghai license plate also has some value, so it is good to clarify the rights to transfer the license plate quota.

Bank deposits, securities, and company shares can be added or reduced as needed, with no significant points to note. The specific inheritance process for the estate has been explained in detail in the inheritance process section; those who haven't seen it can click on my profile to follow and find it in previous articles or videos.

Additionally, if you only want to designate one heir or legatee for the estate, you can list all properties and then write, "All of the above properties are inherited by [name]." There is no need to repeat it in each item.

The third clause indicates that the testator has the capacity to make a will and that their mental state is fine.

The fourth clause states that the will made is the true intention of the testator and has not been interfered with by external forces.

The fifth clause states that all the above properties belong to the testator, and they have the right to dispose of them. This clause can be omitted.

The sixth clause can also be omitted.

The seventh clause states the number of copies of the will and who will keep them. In practice, generally, one copy will be with the heir, and another can be with a witness or a third party.

The eighth clause can include other valid documents with the testator's signature. This is generally used in cases where there are conflicts among heirs after death and litigation arises, and it can be used for handwriting identification. If there are none, it is not a big issue.

Finally, the signing time should specify the year, month, and day, as the time of writing the will can serve as a reference for the will's validity, for example, corresponding with the current property ownership and the testator's mental state. It can also help determine which will is valid in cases of multiple wills.

Signatures and fingerprints are required. Some elderly individuals may not be able to write or may have difficulty writing due to age or changes in handwriting. In such cases, fingerprints become very important as they help determine the true intention of the testator.

This is how a relatively complete will should look.

This template contains a lot of content and is quite useful for printed wills.

If it is a printed will, the last part of the will also needs to include the witness's information.

You can first write a declaration, and when the witnesses sign, they also agree to the declaration content. It is best for both witnesses to also leave fingerprints while filling in their ID numbers, signing dates, and their relationship with the testator.

Additionally, one point to note is regarding the issue of inheritance of wills being considered community property between spouses.

The Marriage Law stipulates that inheritance is community property between spouses, except where the will specifies otherwise. What if the will states who inherits but does not explicitly exclude the spouse? Different courts have different views on this. Currently, it tends to favor personal property. However, to eliminate risks in such situations, it is advisable for those who have this need to add a clause in the will stating, "When the heir inherits the testator's estate, the inherited estate is their personal property and has nothing to do with their spouse." This way, it is foolproof.

III.

Finally, I will briefly discuss the process of establishing a printed will.

Invite two witnesses without vested interests; first, the testator should orally state the contents of the will, and one of the witnesses should record and print it out, preferably doing it on-site. Then, the printed will content should be shown to the testator or read to them, confirming each part. Once everything is confirmed, both witnesses and the testator need to sign, fingerprint, and date each page of the printed paper. Remember, each page must be signed.

Additionally, during the will-writing process, if conditions allow, it can be recorded simultaneously. Heirs should preferably avoid being present to avoid any suspicion of coercion or deception. Although the law does not stipulate this, it can help avoid such suspicions. Regarding the standards for witnesses without vested interests, I have detailed explanations in articles and videos about wills; those who are unfamiliar can refer back to them, and I will not elaborate further here.

Will (Sample Template) Introduction: This compilation categorizes 11 versions of wills for your reference.

Introduction: This compilation categorizes 11 versions of wills for your reference.

1. Handwritten Will: One child inherits, and it is considered personal property of the child.
2. Handwritten Will: Multiple children inherit, and it is considered community property of the children.
3. Handwritten Will: Multiple estates, multiple beneficiaries.
4. Written Will: Bequeathed to grandchildren, with reserved living rights for a third party.
5. Written Will: Establishing the order of inheritance.
6. Written Will: Establishing an executor.
7. Written Will: Establishing an estate manager.
8. Printed Will: Partial estate donation, with fallback clauses, and includes funeral arrangements.
9. Printed Will: Initially a bequest, may later become an inheritance.
10. Notarized Will: Establishing an estate manager, deposit, and guardianship for disabled children.
11. Handwritten Will: Body or organ donation, special burial methods.

Full Text:

Network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images network images