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Quantum computing uses quantum bits as its basic unit, leveraging principles such as quantum superposition and interference to achieve parallel computation. It is expected to provide exponential acceleration in solving complex computational problems, holding significant strategic importance and scientific value. It is one of the important directions for achieving leapfrog development in computing capabilities in the future. Major countries around the world are continuously deepening their layout in related technology research and development, application exploration, and industrial ecosystem cultivation, leading to increasingly fierce international competition. Currently, quantum computing is at a critical stage of technological breakthroughs and application exploration. Research and development of various technological routes, including superconducting, ion trap, neutral atom, photonic quantum, and silicon semiconductor, are making continuous progress. Application exploration in industries such as finance, chemical engineering, biology, transportation, and artificial intelligence is deepening, and quantum-classical hybrid computing has become a focal point of industry attention. Benchmark evaluation research is steadily advancing, with active development from tech giants and startups. Both domestic and international efforts are actively promoting the construction of industrial alliances, and the industry is further accelerating the establishment of an industrial ecosystem relying on quantum computing cloud platforms and public infrastructure. The ecosystem is gradually expanding.

1. The global quantum computing layout is continuously deepening, entering a rapid development phase. (1) Quantum computing is expected to bring disruptive changes and become a focal point of international competition. Quantum computing is a computational scheme that uses quantum bits as its basic unit and employs principles such as quantum superposition and interference for information processing. It possesses information representation capabilities and super parallel processing capabilities that classical computing cannot match, providing exponential acceleration for solving specific computationally complex problems. Quantum computing is an important symbol of the "second quantum revolution," which can drive leapfrog development in computing capabilities and is expected to disrupt and reshape traditional technological systems for information processing and problem-solving, bringing unprecedented opportunities for economic and social development. Quantum computing has become one of the focal points for comprehensive national power competition among major countries globally, as well as for maintaining national technological sovereignty. In recent years, major technological countries have continuously strengthened their planning and layout in the field of quantum computing, with over 30 countries already engaged in quantum information field planning focused on quantum computing.

The United States is one of the earliest countries to conduct research on quantum computing, focusing on promoting its development through government guidance. National strategic deployments are carried out across multiple dimensions, including top-level design, organizational mechanisms, special plans, and ecological construction. In December 2023, the U.S. National Science and Technology Council released the "NQI 2024 Annual Report," indicating that actual investments in quantum information in the U.S. have exceeded the original plan of $1.275 billion over five years by more than double, with a cumulative investment of $3.939 billion from 2019 to 2023, and an expected investment of $968 million in 2024, with quantum computing accounting for the highest proportion, totaling about $1.4 billion over five years. European countries have been paying attention to and continuously supporting the development of quantum computing since the 1990s. In recent years, European countries have laid out and introduced a series of quantum information-related strategies and special plans, aiming to gain an initiative in the global quantum technology competition. In 2024, the European Union released a new version of the Quantum Flagship program, "Strategic Research and Industrial Agenda," proposing short-term (2027) and medium-term (2030) development goals and recommendations in four major areas, including quantum computing, through basic research, promoting industrialization, and strengthening infrastructure construction, to achieve leadership in quantum technology, industrial ecology, and key enabling factors. China places great importance on the development of the quantum information field represented by quantum computing, promoting the formation of a comprehensive research layout through the establishment of national laboratories and the implementation of major scientific and technological projects. The 2024 "Government Work Report" mentioned actively cultivating emerging industries and future industries, formulating future industrial development plans, opening up new tracks in quantum technology and life sciences, and creating a number of leading areas for future industries.

• In recent years, more than twenty provinces and cities in China have proposed planning deployments in local "14th Five-Year" scientific and technological and information technology industry development plans, focusing on basic research, application exploration, and industrial cultivation in quantum computing. Additionally, countries such as the United Kingdom, Japan, Canada, India, Australia, Denmark, South Korea, Ireland, and Singapore also attach great importance to the development of quantum computing, successively releasing quantum information development strategies, focusing on top-level planning, special plans, organizational mechanisms, frontier research, application exploration, industrial cultivation, and talent training to build competitive capabilities in quantum computing. (2) Technological innovation continues to be active, gradually becoming a hot spot in frontier scientific research. Technological innovation in quantum computing continues to be active, gradually becoming a research hotspot in the field of frontier technology, as shown in the number of global quantum computing research papers and patents published in recent years.

The number of global quantum computing papers has increased about fourfold over approximately ten years, reflecting the increasing activity in quantum computing research to some extent. From the publication trend, the annual growth of papers from 2013 to 2017 was relatively small, with an average annual increase of about 70 papers. However, starting in 2017, the growth rate accelerated significantly, especially from 2019 to 2021, where the annual increase exceeded 300 papers. Based on past growth trends, it is expected that the number of global quantum computing papers will continue to grow in the coming years, with related research increasing.

From 2013 to 2023, a total of 15,437 global quantum computing invention patent applications were filed, with a total of 5,417 patents granted worldwide. From the application trend, the rapid development phase began in 2013, with the annual application volume showing a rapid growth trend, peaking at 2,866 applications in 2021. The number of applications slightly declined in 2022, and the number of applications in 2023 decreased due to delays in public disclosures, but it is expected to maintain an upward trend. From the granting trend, it has shown a steady growth state since 2013, reaching a peak of 1,384 in 2023, with the number of grants in 2024 expected to decline slightly due to statistical timing, but the annual grant volume is still expected to maintain an upward trend.

The statistics on the top ten countries in terms of the number of quantum computing papers can reflect the research output and influence of various countries in quantum computing. In terms of publication volume, the United States and China occupy the top two positions, with 5,430 and 4,813 papers respectively, far ahead of other countries, reflecting the activity and leading position of both countries in quantum computing research. Germany, the United Kingdom, and Japan follow closely, with publication volumes of 1,955, 1,441, and 1,421 papers respectively, also demonstrating strong research activity. Based on the average citation frequency (i.e., the average number of citations per paper), Australia ranks first with an average of 41 citations per paper, indicating a high level of recognition and influence for its related research. The average citation frequency for the United States and Canada is 38 times, while Germany and the United Kingdom also show high influence. Although China ranks second in the number of papers, its average citation frequency is relatively low at only 19 times, indicating that the number of high-level papers in China needs to be improved.

Quantum computing includes different technological routes, with statistics on research papers in five mainstream technological directions: superconducting quantum computing, ion trap quantum computing, neutral atom quantum computing, photonic quantum computing, and silicon semiconductor quantum computing, as shown in the following figure, which reflects the level of attention given to different subfields of quantum computing. It can be seen that all five technological routes are receiving widespread attention, with publication volumes showing an upward trend. Among them, the publication volumes of superconducting quantum computing and neutral atom quantum computing have grown particularly prominently.

The main source countries for quantum computing patent applications are shown in the following figure, reflecting the technological output and contributions of major countries/regions in quantum computing. The main source countries for quantum computing patents are China and the United States, accounting for 39% and 28% respectively. Additionally, Japan, Europe, and South Korea account for about 5%, 3%, and 2% of the patent application volume. This reflects the high level of technological innovation capability and activity in the field of quantum computing in the aforementioned countries/regions, with China and the United States having the most prominent technological output and contributions.

2. Research on quantum computing technology is progressing in an orderly manner, but it still faces multiple challenges.

(1) Multiple technological routes are competing, making it difficult to form a focused solution in the short term. Currently, quantum computing is characterized by the parallel development of various hardware technology routes. Different technology routes can be categorized into two types: one represented by the superconducting route and silicon semiconductor route, which are artificial particle routes, and the other represented by the ion trap route, neutral atom route, and photonic quantum route, which are natural particle routes. The former has advantages in scalability but is highly dependent on processing conditions for improving metrics such as logical gate fidelity and qubit control. The latter has advantages in qubit homogeneity and high logical gate precision, but faces challenges in achieving larger-scale systems. In recent years, multiple technological routes have continuously optimized key metrics such as qubit scale, quality, and decoherence time, steadily improving technical levels while maintaining a diversified and competitive development pattern, with significant uncertainty in route convergence, making it difficult to form a focused solution in the short term.

The superconducting technology route is based on superconducting Josephson structures to create two-level systems, with advantages such as good scalability, ease of control, and compatibility with integrated circuit processes, making it one of the most focused and rapidly developing technology routes. In recent years, new achievements have been made in the development of superconducting quantum computing prototypes. By the end of 2023, IBM launched the 1121-qubit superconducting quantum processor Condor and the 133-qubit superconducting quantum processor Heron5. In 2024, the Chinese Academy of Sciences developed a 504-qubit superconducting quantum computing chip "Xiao Hong." The Beijing Quantum Institute's joint team achieved the integration of five 100-qubit scale quantum chips with classical computing resources, reaching a total qubit count of 5,907. The original quantum launched a 72-qubit superconducting quantum chip "Wukong." Numerous research achievements based on the superconducting route have emerged, with the Shenzhen Quantum Institute's joint team verifying the feasibility of using distributed quantum processors to simulate topological phases based on distributed superconducting quantum processors. Terra Quantum announced the realization of Flowermon-type superconducting qubits based on twisted copper oxide van der Waals heterostructures. A joint team from Tsinghua University simulated Fibonacci anyon braiding on a superconducting quantum processor, with experimental results showing that the Fibonacci anyon quantum dimension is very close to the theoretical golden ratio of 1.618. Overall, the superconducting quantum computing route has made rapid breakthroughs in qubit scale, quality, and other technical indicators, remaining one of the most noteworthy quantum computing technology routes.

The ion trap technology route uses the hyperfine or Zeeman energy levels of ions confined in radio frequency electric fields as qubit carriers, with coherent control achieved through lasers or microwaves. The full connectivity of ion trap qubits gives it advantages in control precision and coherence time. In recent years, key metrics such as the number of trapped ions and logical gate control fidelity have continuously improved, with ongoing in-depth engineering research. By the end of 2023, a joint team from Tsinghua University demonstrated the capabilities of various quantum error mitigation techniques for error elimination in complex quantum circuits using an ion trap system. In 2024, the Quantinuum ion trap prototype Model H1 achieved single/double qubit logical gate fidelities of 99.9979% and 99.914%, respectively, with a quantum volume of 104857613, and launched a 56-qubit ion trap prototype Model H2-1, with single/double qubit logical gate fidelities of 99.997% and 99.87%, respectively. Tsinghua University achieved stable confinement cooling of a 512-ion two-dimensional array and quantum simulation calculations with 300 ion qubits. Oxford Ionics combined ion trap technology with silicon chip technology to launch a new electronic quantum bit control technology with better scalability and lower noise characteristics. The ion trap quantum computing route faces bottleneck challenges such as large-scale expansion of qubits, high integration measurement and control, and modular interconnection, and its ability to stand out in route competition remains to be further tracked.

The neutral atom technology route uses optical tweezers or optical lattices to confine atoms, with laser excitation of atoms in Rydberg states for logical gate operations or quantum simulation evolution, holding certain advantages in coherence time, control precision, and scalability. In recent years, there have been many research achievements based on the neutral atom route in expanding qubit scale. In 2024, Darmstadt University of Technology in Germany released experimental results on controlling an array of 1,305 single-atom qubits. Infleqtion released a roadmap for atomic quantum computing, planning to launch a 1,600-qubit prototype in 2024. The UK National Quantum Computing Centre signed commercial contracts with companies such as QuEra and Infleqtion to deploy neutral atom quantum computing prototypes and build testing platforms. Pasqal announced the successful capture of about 1,110 atoms in 2,080 trap sites. Recent research and experiments in the neutral atom route have shown remarkable performance, with the potential for breakthroughs in quantum simulation applications, rapidly rising in the competition among multiple technological routes. The photonic quantum technology route utilizes multiple degrees of freedom of photons for encoding.

Overall, the difficulty of technological breakthroughs and the development application prospects of multiple hardware routes vary, each with its advantages and disadvantages, and they are still in a parallel development stage. There is no clear conclusion on which system is optimal. Currently, the performance level of quantum computing prototypes is still far from achieving large-scale fault-tolerant universal quantum computing. The core elements of technological breakthroughs are high-precision scalable quantum computing prototype qubit counts, which means that the design, manufacturing, and control of qubits face significant challenges, and future collaborative efforts between academia and engineering are still needed.

(2) Research on quantum error correction is continuously deepening, but practical gaps remain significant. Quantum error correction is used to protect qubits from noise and other interferences, making it one of the important links for quantum computers to truly unleash their immense potential. The basic idea of quantum error correction schemes is to use redundant qubits to detect and correct errors in qubits, thereby restoring the original quantum state. These redundant qubits are also known as quantum error correction codes, which ensure the correctness of quantum computing even in the presence of strong environmental noise and interference. Compared to classical error correction codes, the construction of quantum error correction codes is more complex, due to the inherent characteristics of quantum systems, such as the no-cloning theorem, which limits the precise replication of non-orthogonal unknown quantum states. Therefore, quantum error correction codes cannot use simple copying operations to increase redundancy. Since the concept of quantum error correction was proposed, various quantum error correction coding schemes based on different principles have emerged, among which surface codes, as a type of two-level coding, have received widespread attention due to their good scalability, requiring only nearest-neighbor physical qubit interactions, high fault tolerance thresholds, and applicability across multiple routes. With the continuous improvement of quantum computing hardware levels, quantum error correction research has a better physical foundation, and research continues to deepen with many new developments.

In 2024, Alice&Bob's joint team proposed a quantum error correction coding scheme based on bosonic cat state qubits and quantum low-density parity-check codes, achieving 100 high-reliability logical qubits (error rate <10−8) based on 1,500 physical qubits. A joint team from Tsinghua University proposed a quantum error correction scheme based on bosonic encoding and applied it to multiple logical qubits to achieve entanglement protection, increasing the coherence time of entangled logical qubits by 45%, and for the first time experimentally demonstrated Bell's inequality using logical qubits. IBM proposed a quantum error correction scheme based on quantum low-density parity-check codes, achieving a 0.7% error threshold, and when assuming a physical error rate of 0.1%, 288 physical qubits can protect 12 logical qubits. The Quantinuum joint team constructed four logical qubits using 30 physical qubits, reducing the error rate during entanglement of logical qubits to 10−5, nearly 800 times lower than the error rate of entangled physical qubits at 8 × 10−3. With the rapid development of quantum computing hardware performance and error correction-related control technologies in recent years, quantum error correction research and experimental validation continue to deepen and achieve significant progress. However, the current minimum error rate of logical qubits is still far from the practical requirements for quantum computing, and future efforts need to focus on several aspects: researching quantum error correction based on high-dimensional quantum resources, exploring distributed quantum error correction architectures, achieving quantum system control that is immune to specific noise from a theoretical perspective, building a practical evaluation system for quantum error correction schemes, and exploring relevant operations for fault-tolerant quantum logic gates. In summary, practical quantum error correction has become one of the key research and breakthrough directions in the industry, and constructing logical qubits based on quantum error correction will be the next important milestone. To achieve this goal, continuous research efforts are still needed in the future.

(3) Quantum computing software continues to develop diversely, but maturity needs to be improved. Quantum computing software provides developers with the necessary tools to use quantum computing hardware and run quantum algorithms, and is currently in a rapid development phase. As a structured toolset, quantum computing software needs to be developed and designed based on quantum computing principles, providing application development capabilities, compilation capabilities, hardware measurement and control capabilities, and EDA design development capabilities for different technological routes. The industry is laying out in multiple directions, and the system architecture is gradually taking shape, as shown in the following figure.

Among them, application software matches the demands of different industries and conducts demand mapping, compilation software is the foundation for realizing software development functions, measurement and control software provides support and guarantees for the normal and efficient operation of quantum computers, and EDA software is key to improving the engineering level of quantum computing hardware research and manufacturing. Different quantum computing software has unique functions, and during user use, each plays its role.

Application software provides a toolkit for creating and operating quantum programs, including algorithm libraries, development components, and debugging optimization tools, supporting developers in designing and implementing various complex quantum programs and obtaining execution results.

• In 2024, Quantinuum released version 0.4.0 of its quantum natural language processing software "lambeq," improving usability while enhancing string graph processing speed. HQS delivered quantum simulation software "HQS Noise App" to the Leibniz Supercomputing Centre, which can be used to simulate quantum mechanical systems. Microsoft Azure Quantum Elements software launched two new features for generating chemical and density functional theory acceleration, assisting users in conducting research in chemistry and materials science. In the future, application development software needs to expand application scenario research, enrich the types of computational problems, improve algorithm running efficiency, and enhance support capabilities across hardware backends.

Compilation software standardizes the boundaries of quantum programming and realizes the correct compilation and execution of quantum programs, while providing a complete set of syntax rules to coordinate and constrain compilation operations.

• At the end of 2023, NVIDIA released version 23.10 of its quantum circuit simulation software cuQuantum, updating API functions and providing support for NVIDIA's Grace Hopper system. In 2024, IBM launched an updated version of Qiskit software, improving the optimization speed of quantum hardware circuits and the amount of storage resources used. Intel released version 1.1 of its quantum software development kit. Quantum Circuits launched integrated quantum software for real-time management of qubit error detection during algorithm execution. Future compilation software needs to enhance soft and hardware collaborative compilation capabilities, improve core functions such as scheduling, optimization, and debugging based on continuous updates and iterations.

Measurement and control software is mainly used for controlling, processing, and computing quantum computing hardware, supporting measurement result feedback and chip calibration functions.

• In 2024, ISD Technology integrated Q-CTRL's Boulder Opal hardware optimization and automation features into its quantum control system to provide better characterization and optimization functions for quantum processors. QuantrolOx launched the Quantum Edge software platform for automated qubit control, supporting quantum chip monitoring, workflow automation, and data visualization.

• The challenges faced by measurement and control software mainly lie in quantum error correction support capabilities, mapping capabilities between physical qubits and logical qubits, automation, and process-oriented aspects. EDA software can provide functions such as chip design, optimization layout, simulation verification, and manufacturing testing for quantum computing chips.

• In 2024, ISD Technology launched the EDA simulation tool QuantumPro for superconducting quantum processor design, enabling functions such as circuit schematic design, layout construction, electromagnetic analysis, nonlinear circuit simulation, and quantum parameter extraction.

• Future EDA software needs to continuously improve in terms of functional integrity, simulation efficiency and accuracy, and optimization effects to achieve the goal of enhancing the efficiency and quality of quantum chip design. Due to the current uncertainty in the hardware technology routes of quantum computers and the lack of a unified general architecture, quantum computing software is currently in the early stages of development and ecological construction, showing a diversified and differentiated development trend. Different types of software have varying functions, but in terms of technological maturity, stability, and user experience, they are far from the completeness of classical software. With the improvement of hardware capabilities and the advancement of algorithms, future quantum computing software needs to continue to advance in key areas such as quantum programming languages, algorithm libraries, quantum intermediate representations, hardware interfaces, and optimization, laying the foundation for achieving more efficient and reliable quantum computing applications in the future.

(4) Support and guarantee systems are becoming increasingly important, and indicators need further improvement. Quantum state information is easily affected by complex environmental noise and non-ideal characteristics within quantum systems, leading to its destruction. Therefore, the operation of quantum computers requires extremely stringent environmental support systems and high-precision measurement and control systems for environmental protection and measurement support. The quantum computing support and guarantee system is an important component of technological research and prototype engineering development, and a core control element, mainly including environmental equipment, measurement and control systems, and key equipment components. Different parts face varying bottleneck challenges.

Environmental equipment is a necessary support part and infrastructure for ensuring the stable operation of quantum computers, mainly including ultra-high-power dilution refrigerators, GM pulse tube refrigerators, ultra-high vacuum chambers, and pump groups.

In 2024, Bluefors launched an ultra-compact LD dilution refrigeration system. In recent years, China has also made significant achievements in equipment such as dilution refrigerators. The Guoshield Quantum ezQfridge dilution refrigerator has completed delivery testing, and the original quantum has launched its self-developed original SL1000 dilution refrigerator. The environmental equipment required for quantum computers operating under different technology routes varies, and future breakthroughs are still needed in terms of technical levels, core indicators, equipment engineering, miniaturization, and integration to support the large-scale expansion of qubit numbers in quantum computers. Precise quantum control technology and efficient readout technology are crucial for achieving reliable single qubit operations.

3. The exploration of quantum computing applications continues to gain momentum, but practical implementation still needs breakthroughs.

(1) Multi-field application exploration is advancing, but practical implementation still needs accelerated breakthroughs. Currently, quantum computing is at a critical stage of transitioning from frontier research to practical implementation breakthroughs. Extensive and active multi-party application exploration is key to promoting the application of quantum computing technology. The industry is actively seeking specific application scenarios that match industry needs, aiming to provide services for different industry application fields in the future. Typical application areas include finance, chemical engineering, biology, transportation, and artificial intelligence.

As shown in Figure 12, according to the "Quantum Technology Monitoring" research report released by McKinsey in 2024, quantum computing is expected to accelerate development in the next five to ten years, with the market size potentially reaching the trillion-dollar level by 2035.

In the financial sector, there are numerous potential application scenarios for quantum computing, including financial risk management, portfolio analysis, simulated quantitative trading, and financial market forecasting. At the end of 2023, Multiverse Computing and Moody's jointly launched the QFStudio platform, providing quantum computing solutions for financial domain application exploration. In 2024, the Chicago Quantum Exchange released a report suggesting that quantum computing is expected to shorten the time to obtain optimal solutions and improve prediction accuracy in the financial sector. Citibank and Classiq are jointly researching quantum solutions for portfolio optimization based on the Amazon Braket platform, constructing a better-performing portfolio based on expected returns and risk levels. In the chemical engineering sector, quantum computing applications can be used to simulate chemical molecular structures, chemical reactions, etc., and based on this, design chemicals more efficiently and with lower energy consumption. In 2024, BP and ORCA used hybrid quantum-classical machine learning methods to model molecular conformations, exploring the potential of quantum computing to enhance the performance of machine learning algorithms in the chemical field. Microsoft collaborated with the U.S. Department of Energy's Pacific Northwest National Laboratory to use quantum computing to screen new battery materials, with experiments showing that screening time can be significantly reduced. Quebec Hydro is exploring solutions to complex energy problems using quantum computing, aimed at predicting energy demand and designing and operating sustainable energy systems. In the biological field, quantum computing applications mainly focus on early disease diagnosis, drug research and screening, drug testing, genomic data research, and protein structure prediction.

In 2024, Boehringer Ingelheim's quantum laboratory published a paper discussing the current state of quantum computing applications in drug discovery, believing that quantum computing is expected to produce practical applications in drug design in the future. IBM and the Cleveland Clinic collaborated to use quantum-classical hybrid methods to predict protein structures, effectively improving prediction accuracy. Novonesis and Kvantify collaborated to demonstrate the enzymatic reaction calculations of carbonic anhydrase using hybrid quantum-classical computing methods, which is expected to aid in biological process research and industrial carbon dioxide capture. In the transportation sector, quantum computing applications can be used for traffic flow optimization algorithms and real-time predictions, as well as dynamic path planning.

In 2024, IonQ and the German Center for Basic Research applied quantum computing to optimize flight boarding gates, shortening passenger transfer times and aircraft docking times while improving boarding gate service efficiency. Pasqal and Thales demonstrated the potential of quantum computing in solving satellite planning problems based on neutral atom quantum processors. The Singapore Quantum Technology Center used 8 and 13 qubits to solve vehicle routing problems for 128 and 3,964 routes, improving the efficiency of solving combinatorial optimization problems.

(2) The number of quantum computing cloud platform providers is gradually increasing, but functions generally need to be strengthened.

At this stage, quantum computers have high thresholds for hardware and software usage, strict hardware environment requirements, and high operational costs, making it difficult for enterprises and individual users to deploy locally. Against this backdrop, quantum computing cloud platforms have emerged, integrating quantum computing with classical cloud services to provide users with remote access to quantum computers via the internet. Quantum computing cloud platforms, with their flexible service models, convenient access methods, and rich application scenarios, are gradually becoming one of the important development directions for quantum computing and are expected to become the main application form for providing quantum computing services in the future. Dozens of quantum computing cloud platforms have emerged globally, with typical cloud platforms shown in the following figure, demonstrating a vigorous development trend.

Currently, the quantum computing processors that quantum computing cloud platforms can provide include superconducting, ion trap, neutral atom, photonic quantum, and silicon semiconductor technology routes. The access modes for the backend hardware of quantum computing cloud platforms can be mainly divided into three categories. The first category is self-developed device access mode, where cloud platform providers have the capability to independently develop quantum computing hardware, providing self-developed quantum computers or quantum simulators based on classical computing power on the cloud platform. Representative companies or institutions include IBM, IonQ, Xanadu, Rigetti, Original Quantum, Guoshield Quantum, and Beijing Quantum Institute. The second category is cloud service access mode, where cloud platform providers leverage their cloud service capabilities to access hardware and software from other suppliers on the cloud platform. Representative companies or institutions include Microsoft, Amazon, Strangeworks, Arc Quantum, China Mobile, and China Telecom. The third category is a hybrid access mode, which is a combination of the above two access modes, meaning that while accessing self-developed hardware, it also supports calling hardware resources from other suppliers. For example, the IBM Quantum Cloud platform can access both self-developed quantum processors and hardware resources from suppliers such as Rigetti, Xanadu, AQT, and IonQ.

Internationally, tech giants such as IBM, Google, and Microsoft, as well as startups like IonQ, Xanadu, and Rigetti, are actively laying out quantum computing cloud platforms, attracting a large number of developers, researchers, and enterprise users by providing quantum computing processors, simulators, and development tools.

At the end of 2023, IBM integrated Q-CTRL's error suppression technology software Q-CTRL Embedded into its cloud platform, with tests showing that the complexity of quantum algorithms that can be run increased by 10 times and the success rate improved by about 1,000 times after error suppression. IonQ provides the Forte quantum computer on the Amazon Braket platform. Amazon launched the "Braket Direct" program on the Amazon Braket cloud platform, allowing users to reserve the computing power of specific quantum processors for a set period without waiting in line. In 2024, AQT partnered with Deutsche Telekom to provide users with cloud access to its quantum computers. Domestically, companies such as Original Quantum, Guoshield Quantum, and Arc Quantum, as well as operators like China Mobile and China Telecom, have also launched quantum computing cloud platforms. This not only indicates that quantum computing companies attach great importance to the development of cloud platforms but also reflects that telecom operators recognize the potential value of quantum computing in enhancing network performance and strengthening secure communication, aiming to jointly promote the application and industrialization of quantum computing.

At the end of 2023, the China Mobile Cloud Capability Center and Boson Quantum jointly launched the "Wuyue Quantum Computing Cloud Platform - Hengshan Photonic Quantum Computing Power Platform." The China Mobile "Wuyue" quantum computing cloud platform lays out multi-standard quantum computing power networking, multi-mode quantum algorithm program design, and diversified quantum scenario algorithms, aiming to expand the boundaries of quantum computing applications. In 2024, the Beijing Quantum Institute, in collaboration with the Institute of Physics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Tsinghua University, released the Quafu quantum cloud computing cluster, which provides resources for five 100-qubit scale quantum chips and integrates classical computing resources. The Quantum Information and Quantum Technology Innovation Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Sciences developed and delivered the 504-qubit quantum computing chip "Xiao Hong," with plans to open it to the world through the China Telecom Quantum Group's "Tianyan" quantum computing cloud platform. Qike Quantum launched the quantum-classical hybrid computing cloud platform "<Qu|Cloud>", providing access to a 20-qubit ion trap quantum computing processor and a CPU/GPU-based quantum computing simulator, supporting multiple programming modes and algorithm libraries.

Overall, domestic quantum computing cloud platforms still have significant gaps compared to international advanced levels in terms of cloud platform functions, application exploration, business models, and user influence, and further improvements are still needed in the future. Quantum computing cloud platforms have become important tools for users to access quantum computing resources, conduct experimental validation, and explore applications. With the continuous advancement of quantum computing technology and the increasing maturity of cloud platform functions, future quantum computing cloud platforms will exhibit three development trends:

1. Innovation and expansion of service models, evolving from basic infrastructure services to richer platform services and application services;
2. Deep integration and collaboration across platforms and industries, promoting multi-field quantum computing applications and implementation;
3. Intelligent and automated operation management and security protection system construction, enhancing user experience and data security levels. The development of quantum computing cloud platforms requires the industry to jointly promote multiple directions. First, continue to increase R&D investment to enhance the maturity and stability of quantum computing technology, thereby supporting the long-term stable operation of quantum computing cloud platforms; second, strengthen the construction of data security and privacy protection mechanisms to ensure the safety and controllability of user data; finally, promote the development of standardization and interoperability to lower the barriers for interaction and use between different platforms, facilitating the popularization and application of quantum computing.

(3) Benchmark evaluation research is steadily advancing, with results and challenges coexisting. With the development of quantum computing prototypes and the exploration of applications, benchmark evaluation has gradually gained attention. How to accurately and efficiently assess the performance of quantum computing systems has become a focal point of industry attention, providing important references for users to analyze the development level of the quantum computing technology industry. Quantum computing benchmark evaluation is a key technology for characterizing hardware performance indicators and evaluating system capabilities, which not only helps promote the development and application of underlying quantum computing hardware but also serves as a crucial bridge connecting theoretical research and practical applications.

The development of quantum computing benchmark evaluation is very rapid, with a series of evaluation benchmark methods proposed in the industry. These benchmark methods typically include various tasks with specific functions, such as fidelity testing of quantum gate operations, coherence time evaluation of qubits, and execution efficiency of quantum algorithms, aiming to provide relatively fair comparison means for different quantum computing systems, helping researchers gain a more comprehensive understanding of system performance. The framework of the quantum computing benchmark evaluation system can be divided into qubit level, quantum circuit level, system level, algorithm level, and application level, with different characteristics and focuses presented at each level. The lower-level benchmarks, such as qubit level and quantum circuit level, are highly correlated with hardware and can fully reflect the differences between various technological routes. The parameters and indicators at the lower level are relatively more dispersed and specific, making it easier for researchers familiar with technical details to accurately identify problems and propose solutions. As the levels rise, for example, the system level and application level become more abstract and less directly related to hardware.

In recent years, the industry has actively carried out quantum computing benchmark evaluation research, aiming to evaluate the comprehensive performance of quantum computing systems in a more objective manner. At the end of 2023, IBM proposed the Every Layer Gate Error (EPLG) metric, which can more accurately assess crosstalk and can also be used to estimate the number of circuits required for error mitigation, while updating the definition of Circuit Layers Operations Per Second (CLOPSh) to more realistically reflect hardware performance. EPLG, CLOPSh, and the quantum volume (QV) metric proposed by IBM can comprehensively evaluate the performance of quantum computing systems from the dimensions of scale, quality, and speed. In 2024, QED-C updated the application-oriented evaluation benchmark suite, expanding the evaluation benchmarks for algorithms such as HHL, VQE, and quantum machine learning, and introducing parameters such as the quality of computational results (e.g., final ground state energy, classification accuracy, etc.) and computational costs for quantum computing performance evaluation. The U.S. DARPA launched a new quantum benchmark testing program (QBI), mainly targeting benchmark testing for quantum computing algorithms and applications, and assessing the feasibility of building industrial-grade quantum computers.

As quantum computing technology continues to develop, various testing benchmark studies are becoming increasingly important. However, quantum computing benchmark evaluation research also faces a series of challenges, such as the objectivity and fairness of benchmarks being a major concern in the industry. In 2024, Quantinuum pointed out in its report that the #AQ benchmark may lead to an overestimation of quantum computer performance in certain cases, primarily due to the application of error mitigation techniques and circuit compilation strategies, which can enhance efficiency and accuracy in specific usage scenarios but may mislead overall performance evaluations. Therefore, when evaluating and comparing the performance of different quantum computers, researchers must consider these factors to ensure the objectivity and fairness of evaluation results. Quantum computing benchmark evaluation research plays a crucial role in assessing development status, promoting industry development, and connecting theory with practical applications. Currently, research on quantum computing benchmark evaluation is continuously deepening both domestically and internationally, achieving results while also facing numerous challenges. In the future, the industry needs to continuously improve the evaluation system, update evaluation schemes, and establish evaluation standards to more accurately and comprehensively showcase the actual performance of quantum computers, promoting continuous progress in the industry.

(4) Quantum-classical integration has become a focal point, and the architectural framework of technology is crucial. The quantum computing technology industry is currently in a phase of vigorous development; however, the operation and maintenance of current quantum computers still face significant challenges. Future large-scale commercial use must bridge the gap from theoretical advantages to realizing application value. The industry is gradually realizing that neither pure quantum computing nor classical computing can meet all computational needs, thus requiring an organic integration of the two to form more powerful computing capabilities. In this context, quantum-classical hybrid computing combines quantum computing and classical computing, fully leveraging the advantages of both to jointly solve complex problems.

As a new computing model, quantum-classical hybrid computing has two basic characteristics: hybridization and collaboration. Hybridization refers to the simultaneous inclusion of quantum computing and classical computing within a single system, forming a hybrid computation with heterogeneous computing power. Quantum computers can be divided into universal gate-type quantum computers and specialized quantum computers. Universal gate-type quantum computers currently exist in various technological routes, including superconducting, ion trap, neutral atom, photonic quantum, and silicon semiconductor, with significant differences in technical principles, performance indicators, and maturity among different routes. Specialized quantum computers mainly include quantum annealers and coherent Ising machines. Classical processors mainly include central processing units (CPUs) and graphics processing units (GPUs). Heterogeneous computing power integration includes both the hybridization between universal gate-type quantum computers and specialized quantum computers, as well as the hybridization of various quantum computing architectures with various classical computing architectures. Collaboration refers to the quantum computer's responsibility for processing quantum information, such as quantum state preparation and measurement, while the classical computer handles classical information, such as logical operations, floating-point operations, algorithm analysis, and optimization. By designing algorithms and interfaces, the quantum computing part can collaborate with the classical computing part to jointly complete computational tasks. Quantum computers are suitable for solving problems involving parallel computation of data, matrix operations, linear algebra, etc., while classical computing excels in logical operations, floating-point operations, and has relatively mature programming development tools, operating systems, and algorithm libraries. The core idea of quantum-classical hybrid computing is to leverage the advantages of quantum computing to accelerate the solution of specific problems while ensuring the accuracy and reliability of computations through the stability and usability of classical computing.

A preliminary quantum-classical hybrid computing technology architecture is proposed, as shown in the following figure, which can be divided into seven levels: application layer, development tool layer, algorithm layer, programming framework layer, task scheduling layer, resource management layer, and physical resource layer. The application layer includes typical application fields for quantum-classical hybrid computing, including quantitative finance, energy materials, biomedicine, transportation logistics, and information communication. This layer mainly provides computing services to industry users through packaged software, functions, or custom-developed forms. The development tool layer provides development and debugging tools for quantum-classical hybrid algorithms, including Jupyter Notebook, WebIDE, etc. The algorithm layer provides typical quantum-classical hybrid algorithms for the application layer, with representative algorithms including Variational Quantum Eigensolver (VQE), Quantum Approximate Optimization Algorithm (QAOA), Quantum Machine Learning (QML), and Quantum Neural Networks (QNN). The programming framework layer provides basic programming languages and compilation tools for algorithm development, providing interconnecting interfaces for underlying hardware and upper-layer application software, while decomposing and interoperating quantum and classical computing tasks, ultimately converting high-level programming languages into hardware instruction sets to be transmitted to the underlying hardware. The task scheduling layer schedules the decomposed quantum and classical tasks and achieves collaboration between various quantum and classical heterogeneous computing powers. Currently, there are mainly two task scheduling methods: heterogeneous parallel scheduling and remote parallel scheduling, with the former achieving low-latency communication between quantum and classical systems, while the latter is relatively easier to implement. The resource management layer implements functions such as registration, monitoring, and scheduling of various physical machines, virtual machines, Docker containers, and topologies. The physical resource layer is the lowest level, divided into classical resources and quantum resources, with classical resources including various classical computing, storage, and operational infrastructure, and quantum resources including universal gate-type quantum computers, specialized quantum computers, and quantum circuit simulators from various technological routes.

With continuous technological breakthroughs, tech companies are gradually recognizing the importance of quantum-classical hybrid computing and are competing to lay out related research. Internationally, NVIDIA released the GPU-accelerated quantum computing system NVIDIA DGX Quantum, which is based on the NVIDIA Grace Hopper architecture superchip and the open-source quantum-classical hybrid programming model CUDA Quantum, reducing communication latency between GPUs and QPUs to sub-microsecond levels. Microsoft proposed four quantum-classical hybrid modes: batch quantum computing, interactive quantum computing, integrated quantum computing, and distributed quantum computing, gradually transitioning from remote parallel scheduling to heterogeneous parallel modes. Amazon launched the Braket Hybrid Jobs tool, achieving fully managed orchestration of quantum-classical hybrid algorithms, combining access to classical computing resources and quantum processors, while supporting parameterized compilation of quantum circuits to optimize the execution process of quantum-classical hybrid algorithms. IBM's roadmap indicates that it expects to demonstrate supercomputing with quantum computing centers by 2025, integrating quantum processors, classical processors, quantum communication networks, and classical networks.

Domestically, Zhongwei Daxin launched a hybrid computing measurement and control unit suitable for classical computers and multi-path quantum measurement and control, achieving millisecond-level invocation delays between quantum-classical measurement and control instructions based on PCIe interfaces. Original Quantum released a quantum-cloud hybrid solution architecture, where quantum computers are remotely interconnected with classical supercomputers via the public network, achieving collaborative computing through running quantum-classical interaction protocols between the quantum operating system and supercomputing management scheduling module. The China Telecom Quantum "Tianyan" quantum computing cloud platform provides two modes of quantum-classical hybridization: batch and interactive, thereby achieving remote parallel scheduling. In the future, as quantum computing technology continues to advance and the performance of classical computers improves, quantum-classical hybrid computing has become one of the important trends driving the computing industry forward, with both forming complementary advantages and being key to promoting technological development. Overall, the quantum-classical hybrid field will further explore application scenarios while continuously improving the scheduling mechanism, gradually establishing an industrial ecosystem step by step. Hardware manufacturers need to develop high-performance, highly stable quantum-classical hybrid computing systems to provide a strong computing foundation for the entire ecosystem; software developers need to develop efficient and user-friendly programming tools and software platforms tailored to the characteristics and needs of hybrid computing, reducing development difficulty and improving development efficiency; application service providers will leverage the advantages of quantum-classical hybrid computing to provide customized solutions for various industries, promoting the digital transformation and upgrading of the industry.

4. The cultivation of the quantum computing industry is multi-faceted, and the ecosystem is gradually emerging.

(1) The industrial ecosystem is initially forming, but the development of key links still needs to be promoted. With the development of quantum computing prototype manufacturing, software research and development, application exploration, and cloud platform construction, upstream and downstream enterprises are continuously emerging, injecting strong momentum into the development of the quantum computing technology industry. The cultivation of the quantum computing industrial ecosystem is steadily underway, as shown in the following figure, with an increasing number of participants in each link, but the overall ecosystem is still in its infancy, and the development of key links still needs to be promoted.

The upstream of the industrial ecosystem includes environmental support systems, measurement and control systems, and core equipment components, involving many aspects such as dilution refrigerators, vacuum systems, low-temperature components, and optical devices, forming the foundational base of the entire quantum computing industrial ecosystem. Due to the complexity of quantum computing technology, the parallel advancement of multiple routes, and the uncertainty in development trends, the upstream of the industrial ecosystem currently shows characteristics of decentralization and diversification. On one hand, decentralization increases the difficulty for suppliers to concentrate on technological breakthroughs, but on the other hand, diversification may help reduce risks such as supply monopolies that a single supplier may cause. In comparison with domestic and foreign counterparts, European and American countries have a larger number of enterprises in the upstream of the quantum computing industrial ecosystem and a higher level of development, having accumulated relatively superior conditions and resources in product development, technological innovation, and market demand. Upstream enterprises in China have developed rapidly in recent years, successively launching various self-developed products, but there is still significant room for improvement in performance indicators, manufacturing costs, and market recognition of some key equipment components, and further improvements in product technology levels through independent research and development are still needed in the future.

Midstream enterprises in the industrial ecosystem include quantum computing prototype manufacturers and software suppliers, which are the core links of the quantum computing industrial ecosystem and also the parts with a relatively concentrated number of enterprises. Among the global enterprises engaged in the development of quantum computing prototypes, those focusing on superconducting routes account for the largest number, exceeding one-third of the total, followed by ion traps, neutral atoms, photonic quantum, and silicon semiconductors. In terms of software, many enterprises are dedicated to building their own quantum computing software while also constructing open-source software communities to promote the development and application exploration of quantum computing technology. In comparison with domestic and foreign counterparts, most countries are laying out multiple technological routes in parallel, with European and American enterprises holding certain advantages in terms of quantity, prototype development capabilities, software research and development, and open-source community construction. China has laid out in several mainstream technological routes and has seen the emergence of a number of quantum computing software enterprises in recent years, but overall, there is still a gap compared to Europe and America in terms of enterprise investment intensity, output results, and innovation capabilities.

Downstream enterprises in the industrial ecosystem include quantum computing cloud platform providers and industry application enterprises, playing a crucial role in the ecosystem as they are the closest to users. In terms of cloud platforms, they provide cloud access for various users, sharing quantum computing resources and promoting early layout and healthy cultivation of the quantum computing industry. In terms of industry applications, users in sectors such as finance, chemical engineering, medicine, and transportation are paying attention to the application potential of quantum computing, opening application scenarios, and conducting application exploration, aiming to find solutions to industry-specific challenges. In comparison with domestic and foreign counterparts, quantum computing cloud platforms of foreign tech giants such as IBM, Amazon, and Microsoft are leading globally in terms of resource sharing, hardware diversity, richness of application cases, and commercialization of service models. Quantum computing enterprises are actively collaborating with enterprises in different fields to jointly explore applications of quantum computing in key industry sectors. Domestic quantum computing cloud platform providers still need to improve in terms of collaborative cooperation between platforms, backend hardware levels, and exploration of business models. Traditional industry enterprises in China still need to further strengthen and improve their investment intensity, attention levels, and cooperation mechanisms with quantum computing enterprises, and in the future, proactive application exploration is needed to enhance collaborative innovation capabilities.

Quantum information technology, represented by quantum computing, has become one of the important focal points for future industrial layout. The industrial foundational capabilities support the layout and development of future industries, and comparative analysis of the industrial foundational capabilities of different countries can provide perspectives and tools for evaluating a country's comprehensive strength and international competitiveness in the field of quantum computing technology industry. This report constructs an analysis method for the foundational capabilities of the quantum computing industry based on dimensions such as scientific research foundation, government support, commercial activities, and technological achievements, considering the technological advancements of the United States, China, and the United Kingdom.

Quantum Computing: Disruptive Innovation in the Computing Industry, the Sharp Spear of Future Technology. The quantum bits of quantum computers utilize the principle of quantum superposition to achieve exponential growth in the amount of information processed. For example, using Shor's algorithm, it can crack a 2048-bit RSA password in 8 hours on 200,000 physical qubits with an error rate of 0.1%, while a classical computer would take hundreds of years to do so. From the perspective of the industrial chain, quantum computing chips, dilution refrigerators, and room temperature measurement and control systems have become the main components of quantum computers. According to an ICV report, the global quantum computing industry scale reached $4.7 billion in 2023, with an average annual growth rate (CAGR) of 44.8% from 2023 to 2028, expected to achieve rapid growth. It is recommended to pay attention to quantum computing overall solution providers such as Guoshield Quantum and quantum measurement and control system providers such as Puyuan Jingdian.

Quantum Communication: Quantum Technology Achieves Key Distribution, the Solid Shield of Information Security. Key distribution and digital signature technology based on traditional RSA algorithms face significant security risks in the era of quantum computing. Quantum secure communication converts classical keys into quantum forms, utilizing the physical characteristics of quantum non-clonability and entanglement to achieve absolute security in the key distribution process. From the perspective of the industrial chain, quantum key distribution devices (QKD) have become core devices in the industry, with upstream including chips, light sources, single-photon detectors, and quantum random number generators, while downstream mainly focuses on government, finance, and other critical industries for initial implementation. In terms of construction progress, China has formed a three-step development strategy of backbone network, metropolitan network, and integrated space-ground network, currently having built a backbone network of quantum secure communication exceeding 10,000 kilometers in length, with future metropolitan network and integrated space-ground network construction expected to accelerate. It is recommended to pay attention to QKD device vendors such as Guoshield Quantum and system integrators such as Shenzhou Information.

Post-Quantum Cryptography: Underlying Innovation in Cryptographic Principles, New Solutions to Quantum Attacks. Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is a new generation of cryptographic algorithms that can resist attacks from quantum computing on existing cryptographic algorithms. The goal is to design new cryptographic algorithms that maintain high security in the face of quantum computing threats. The mainstream post-quantum cryptographic algorithms can be roughly divided into five categories based on the underlying hard problems they rely on: (1) Lattice-based PQC algorithms, (2) Hash-based PQC algorithms, (3) Code-based PQC algorithms, (4) Multivariate-based PQC algorithms, and (5) Isogeny-based PQC algorithms.

1. Lattice-based: Lattices are a mathematical structure defined as a set of linearly independent non-zero vectors (called basis vectors) that form integer linear combinations. The main mathematical basis for lattice cryptography is two hard problems in lattices: the Shortest Vector Problem (SVP) and the Closest Vector Problem (CVP). Lattices are difficult problems, and their difficulty can be controlled, meeting the necessary conditions to become the core of cryptographic algorithms. Research on lattices is the most active and flexible in PQC. Lattice-based algorithms can achieve various cryptographic constructions, including encryption, digital signatures, key exchange, attribute encryption, function encryption, and fully homomorphic encryption.
2. Hash-based: Hash-based signature algorithms evolved from Lamport's one-time signature scheme, first proposed by Ralph Merkle, and constructed using hash trees. Hash-based cryptographic algorithms are limited to digital signatures, and to date, no experts have proposed public key encryption or key encapsulation schemes based on hash design and implementation. The security of hash-based digital signature schemes relies on certain security properties of hash algorithms, such as one-wayness (resistance to pre-image attacks), weak collision resistance (resistance to second pre-image attacks), and pseudo-randomness. If the hash function used is compromised, a new secure hash function can be constructed to replace it, making hash-based signatures the most theoretically secure class in post-quantum cryptography. However, there are two main drawbacks: first, the signature size is large; second, for stateful hash-based signatures, the number of signatures they can support is limited, and increasing the number of signatures will reduce computational efficiency and further increase the size of the signature.
3. Code-based: Code-based algorithms were first proposed by McEliece in 1978, with their theoretical basis stemming from the difficulty of decoding random linear codes. The core lies in introducing a certain number of erroneous codewords into the encoding, making it difficult to correct erroneous codewords or compute the associated parity-check matrix. McEliece proposed the first public key encryption scheme based on coding, opening up the research field of coding-based cryptography. Code-based cryptographic algorithms are considered relatively competitive in post-quantum cryptography. A well-known code-based encryption algorithm is McEliece, which uses a randomly chosen irreducible Goppa code as the private key, and the public key is a general linear code obtained by transforming the private key. Code-based cryptography typically has smaller ciphertext sizes, but its drawbacks include large public keys and slow key generation, which need to be improved for practical applications.
4. Multivariate: Multivariate-based algorithms use systems of quadratic polynomials with multiple variables over finite fields to construct encryption, signature, and key exchange algorithms. The security of multivariate cryptography relies on the difficulty of solving nonlinear equation systems, specifically the multivariate quadratic polynomial problem. This problem has been proven to be NP-hard. Currently, there are no known classical or quantum algorithms that can quickly solve multivariate equations over finite fields. Multivariate algorithms are suitable for application scenarios that emphasize algorithm efficiency but are not concerned about bandwidth. Compared to other post-quantum cryptographic algorithms, multivariate algorithms have advantages in fast signature verification speed and low resource consumption, but their public key sizes are large, making them suitable for applications where frequent public key transmission is not required, such as IoT devices with limited computational and storage capabilities.
5. Isogeny: Isogeny-based cryptography is a post-quantum cryptographic system based on the isogeny problem of elliptic curves, relying on a new hard problem, namely finding isogenies between any two elliptic curves. In 2011, the SIDH algorithm based on supersingular isogenies was proposed, which is a Diffie-Hellman-type key exchange algorithm. In 2017, an efficient implementation of the SIDH algorithm, the SIKE algorithm, was proposed, followed by the introduction of several new isogeny-based cryptographic systems, such as the CSIDH and SQIsign algorithms. Isogeny-based cryptography inherits the underlying operations of elliptic curve cryptography, with very small public keys and ciphertexts, allowing operation in bandwidth-constrained environments. However, its operational efficiency is very low, with key generation, encryption, and decryption speeds nearly two orders of magnitude slower than lattice-based algorithms, making it challenging to implement on devices with insufficient computational performance. Shortly after NIST entered SIKE into the fourth round, experts were able to recover private key information within hours using hints from SIKE, indicating that SIKE has been compromised, while CSIDH and SQIsign algorithms have yet to be compromised.

4.2. Global active layout of post-quantum cryptography, standards are about to be released. With the development of quantum computers, the cryptographic management departments of multiple countries are increasingly focusing on the research of PQC that can resist quantum computing attacks. Currently, standardization organizations, national cryptography or security management departments, and the industry are promoting the standardization of PQC cryptography. The United States, Europe, and China are all actively investing in the standardization research of PQC, with the most influential being the U.S. NIST's global technical proposal solicitation.

Currently, the most powerful market participants in the field of post-quantum cryptography are mainly distributed in North America and Europe. For example, companies in the United States include Google, IBM, Microsoft, PQSecure, Cisco, and Envieta, while Canadian companies include ISARA and Quantropi. European companies include PQShield (UK), Infineon (Germany), Thales (France), CryptoNext (France), and Gemalto (Netherlands, acquired by Thales in 2019). These companies provide three main types of services: chip design, digital information security, and comprehensive quantum security solutions. In addition, some top universities and research institutes are also involved in PQC research, such as the Technical University of Munich (Germany), Florida Atlantic University (USA), and Tsinghua University (China).

The United States has released and updated numerous policies regarding post-quantum cryptography and migration strategies. In September 2018, the U.S. National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) released the "National Strategy Overview for Quantum Information Science." In January 2022, the U.S. President signed National Security Memorandum NSM-8, which for the first time included post-quantum cryptography in the national security memorandum. In May 2022, the U.S. signed a presidential decree requiring the assurance of the U.S. leading position in quantum computing and promoting the migration of post-quantum algorithms to reduce security risks posed by quantum computing. In September 2022, the U.S. NSA released the CNSA 2.0 suite, which includes recommendations for post-quantum cryptographic algorithms for six scenarios in government information systems to complete post-quantum migration before 2033.

The U.S. NIST is leading the development of post-quantum cryptography algorithm standards. The post-quantum cryptography standardization project initiated by NIST is currently the most influential and widely participated standardization project. Its goal is to select general public key encryption, signature, and key encapsulation/establishment algorithms that can resist quantum attacks to replace the existing RSA and elliptic curve discrete logarithm public key cryptographic algorithms in the U.S. FIPS 186 and SP 800-56A/B/C standards. As early as 2012, NIST began researching post-quantum cryptography, establishing relevant teams, following industry progress, and contacting industrial and international standardization organizations to prepare for this standardization project. In 2016, NIST promoted the project through platforms such as PQCrypto and the Asian Post-Quantum Cryptography Forum, calling on global cryptographers to actively participate, and in December 2016, it released the official algorithm solicitation announcement NIST IR 8105. By the end of November 2017, a total of 82 proposals had been collected from 25 countries worldwide, with 69 algorithms meeting NIST's "complete and suitable" acceptance criteria, entering the first round of evaluation. This included three algorithms from China and 22 algorithms from the European Union. In early 2019, NIST released the first round evaluation report NIST IR 8240, announcing that 26 algorithms entered the second round of evaluation. In July 2022, NIST released the third round evaluation report NIST IR 8413, announcing the first batch of standard algorithms. Additionally, code-based Classic McEliece, BIKE, and HQC, as well as the SIDH-based SIKE, entered the fourth round of evaluation. NIST released the first batch of post-quantum cryptography algorithm standard drafts on August 24, 2023, including Crystals-Kyber (FIPS.203), Crystals-Dilithium (FIPS.204), and SPHINCS+ (FIPS.205), with the standard draft for the fourth algorithm, Falcon, expected to be released in 2024.

4.3. The migration process of post-quantum cryptography is gradually starting, and the industry is poised for development. The migration to post-quantum cryptography is an important measure to ensure that existing cryptographic systems remain secure in the face of quantum computing threats. The migration to post-quantum cryptography is not just about replacing cryptographic algorithms; it also includes updating cryptographic protocols, schemes, components, and infrastructure to quantum-safe cryptographic technologies, and even building the capability for flexible updates of cryptographic systems and iterative updates of cryptographic application information systems. It is a series of processes, procedures, and technologies needed to smoothly transition the existing cryptographic security system to a post-quantum cryptography security standard system in phases. Considering the complexity and stability of post-quantum cryptography, most currently prefer to adopt a hybrid model of "two locks, double insurance" for transition rather than a direct replacement model.

The integrated application of QKD and PQC is expected to become an industry trend. QKD and PQC are currently recognized by academia as two technological paths and directions to address quantum computing threats. The prevalent view internationally is that QKD has long-term security but lacks authentication methods and has relatively high application costs; PQC has the advantage of being compatible with traditional cryptography in terms of functionality and application systems but lacks security proofs. The integrated application of these two technologies to counter quantum computing threats may be a more effective approach. Large-scale networking for QKD requires fiber optic resources and is significantly affected by geographical environments, leading to relatively high application costs. Adopting a hybrid networking approach based on QKD + PQC can effectively reduce costs. By separating the transmission of encryption keys from the data channel into a dedicated key management subsystem that can be configured as needed, a typical hybrid network configuration consists of a series of nodes, some of which communicate with encryption devices on encrypted data links, while others serve as trusted relay nodes. Quantum-safe key management devices with paired QKD connections complete key exchanges based on QKD, while nodes without paired QKD connections complete key exchanges based on lattice-based PQC key exchange protocols. Therefore, the QKD + PQC hybrid networking scheme is expected to become a future industry trend.

The U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) has clarified the migration roadmap, and the industry is poised for development. Currently, the most explicit post-quantum cryptography migration timeline is outlined in the "Commercial National Security Algorithm Suite 2.0" released by the NSA. (Note: CNSA 1.0 is the current standard, while CNSA 2.0 is the future standard. The NSA recommends adopting CNSA 2.0 software and firmware signature algorithms now.) Specifically, for software and firmware signature scenarios, CNSA 2.0 recommends using hash-based signature algorithms LMS and XMSS as outlined in NIST SP 800-208. Compared to lattice-based post-quantum signature standard algorithms Dilithium and Falcon, these two hash-based signature algorithms have the characteristic of requiring stateful private keys, necessitating careful maintenance and updates. Additionally, the number of signatures supported by a single private key is limited, and both signing and verification speeds are slow. This makes them potentially less universal than stateless signatures. Regarding symmetric algorithms, CNSA 2.0 recommends using AES 256, SHA384, or SHA512. For public key algorithms in general scenarios, CNSA 2.0 recommends using Kyber and Dilithium to replace RSA, DH, ECDH, and ECDSA, and suggests using the highest level of NIST Level 5 parameters. CNSA 2.0 targets U.S. national security systems, while for civilian systems, especially medium and low-security civilian systems, more suitable parameters can be selected based on security needs and performance balance. For the migration timeline of post-quantum cryptography in different scenarios, CNSA 2.0 provides the following requirements: the U.S. government will complete the migration of post-quantum cryptography in its information systems by 2033. Specifically, for the migration of software/firmware signature scenarios, it should be initiated immediately and completed before 2030; the migration of traditional network devices should start around 2025 and also be completed before 2030.

We believe that the U.S. NSA has clarified the migration roadmap for post-quantum cryptography, and combined with the first version of post-quantum cryptography algorithm standards that NIST is about to release, it marks that the industry is about to enter the stage of commercial implementation. The development of post-quantum cryptography has formed a consensus globally, and China is also expected to actively lay out, bringing new development and investment opportunities for the cryptography industry.

5.7. Rigetti Computing
Rigetti is a full-stack quantum computing company that builds superconducting quantum computing systems and provides access through the cloud. The Rigetti quantum cloud service platform serves global enterprises, governments, and research clients, with Rigetti's proprietary quantum-classical infrastructure providing high-performance integration for practical quantum computing with public and private clouds. Rigetti's Aspen-M is the world's first commercially available multi-chip quantum processor, improving scale, speed, and fidelity, enhancing the reliability of quantum program results. Rigetti's long-term goal is to demonstrate quantum supremacy, using quantum computers to solve real-world problems that are currently difficult for classical computers to address more effectively, quickly, and cost-effectively. To this end, Rigetti is pursuing continuous and rapid improvements in quantum hardware in terms of scale and performance and collaborating with partners across various industries and application fields, starting with developing hardware that is most suitable for some "narrow" quantum supremacy instances, ultimately becoming more general.

5.8. D-Wave Quantum
D-Wave is a leader in the development and delivery of quantum computing systems, software, and services, being the world's first commercial supplier of quantum computers and a company that develops both annealing quantum computers and gate model quantum computers. One of the important technologies developed and enhanced by D-Wave over the years is the solver, which allows problems to be transformed into quadratic models and input at a high level, while the solver can also be compiled to run on quantum annealers. At the same time, D-Wave is actively improving its Ocean software, providing customers with software development tools in quantum and classical hybrid environments, combining real-time and secure cloud access to quantum computers and hybrid solvers through Leap Quantum cloud services.

In terms of hardware technology, D-Wave continues to advance the research and development of quantum annealing and gate-based hardware. D-Wave has been committed to developing the Advantage series of products and continuously building increasingly large-scale quantum technology prototypes.

5.11. LightSpeed Technology
LightSpeed Technology has established a joint venture with Guoshield Quantum Technology Co., Ltd. to form Shandong Guoxun Quantum Chip Technology Co., Ltd., which holds 45.00% equity in Shandong Guoxun Quantum. The quantum chips of Guoxun Company are mainly applied in QKD communication and quantum measurement fields, with product development primarily targeting the integrated and high-performance optoelectronic chips and devices required for the next generation of quantum information system equipment. From the perspective of the industrial chain, LightSpeed Technology has been making forward-looking layouts in the field of quantum communication since 2016, mastering leading research and manufacturing capabilities in signal processing chips and avalanche photodiodes, and gradually achieving integrated production and vertical layout of the entire industrial chain through acquisitions of upstream and downstream industry chain enterprises.

In 2023, the project undertaken by LightSpeed Technology, "Capacity Building Project for the Information Optoelectronics Innovation Center," passed acceptance, and a series of key photonic integrated chip and device products were developed. The first commercial 100Gb/s silicon photonic chip and 400Gb/s were officially put into production and scaled application, achieving breakthroughs in commercial chip production in the fields of optical sensing, optical quantum, and optical measurement, filling domestic gaps. It has played an important role in supporting the core components of China's communication systems to be independently controllable.

5.12. Hengtong Optoelectronics
In terms of communication business, Hengtong Optoelectronics focuses on "technology leadership, cost leadership, quality leadership, and service leadership," creating global information and energy interconnection solution service providers that lead industry development. It possesses a full-value optical communication industrial chain from next-generation green optical rods, optical fibers, optical cables, optical networks, to data centers, as well as key technologies for new-generation networks such as optical sensing and 5G, forming a service model of "products + solutions + engineering." It has fully laid out vertical application scenarios based on new-generation communication technologies and "Internet of Everything," ranking among the top three in the global optical fiber communication industry. Hengtong Optoelectronics has invested in research and development in quantum secure communication and silicon photonic technology, winning the highest award in the China region at the ITU 2019 World Summit on the Information Society.

In 2020, the company undertook the construction of the "Yangtze River Delta Quantum Communication Ring Network" and the "Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Quantum Communication Ring Network," which have gradually been put into operation. At the same time, the company actively promotes the industrial application of quantum communication, successfully delivering the Suzhou Quantum Secure Government Network, which is the first pilot application of quantum secure communication technology in the government sector of Jiangsu Province.

JinCard Intelligent
JinCard Intelligent has invested in Guokex Quantum, holding equity in Guokex Quantum with a book value of 50 million yuan. Guokex Quantum Communication Network Co., Ltd. (referred to as "Guokex Quantum" or "Quantum Network") was jointly established by China Academy of Sciences Holdings Co., Ltd. and the University of Science and Technology of China, and is a member of the International Telecommunication Union and a national high-tech enterprise. The company is dedicated to the research, construction, and operation of facilities and businesses based on quantum communication technology, integrating space-ground, cloud-network fusion, application-driven, and self-controllable systems, striving to play a leading, strategic, and foundational role in ensuring data security through quantum information services and supporting the development of the real economy. Guokex Quantum is the only operator of the national backbone network for quantum secure communication, based on the national wide-area quantum secure communication backbone network, constructing a cloud platform integrating quantum communication technology at the eight major hub nodes of the "East Data West Calculation" project, providing proactive control technology and quantum security-enhanced digital infrastructure for data security and governance.

Although quantum computing has not yet become widespread, there are already some high-level languages for quantum computing. This time, taking the opportunity of the Codeforces Q# contest, I will make a simple attempt. This is not a tutorial; the tutorial links are as follows, and if you want to learn more, you need to check them out yourself (some are in English):
https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/quantum/ - Q# documentation, with concepts of quantum computing and Q# syntax.
https://github.com/microsoft/QuantumKatas - A GitHub repository for introductory knowledge of quantum computing.
Bloch sphere visualization tools.
Quantum Technology Lecture 1: What is quantum in one sentence?

Quantum Technology Lecture 2: What secrets do cats reveal about quantum states?